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Forever Chemicals, Forever Problems: How PFAS Contaminated Our World

Irleen Kaur



Becoming a highly industrialized society has had its pros and cons. We’ve engineered chemicals that protect plants, resist extreme heat, and repel water. These conveniences have revolutionized the products we make today, but they come with a dark side. These synthetic chemicals last forever in our environment, accumulating in waterways, soil, marine organisms, wildlife, and even our bloodstream. 


PFAS, or per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, are a diverse group of synthetic chemicals of large concern today due to their persistence in our environment. Once released, they do not break down nor degrade. They simply accumulate, earning them the nickname “forever chemicals.” But what specifically makes these compounds so toxic to our environment - and ourselves? 


The answer lies in both their chemical structure and the countless pathways they are able to take from their origin points.


The Chemical Structure of PFAS


Generally, PFAS are classified as semi-volatile compounds (SVOCs), which are characterized by their intermediate vapor pressures1. As explained by GP Radar, “this property places them between VOCs, which readily evaporate into the air, and non-volatile compounds, which tend to remain in solid or liquid form.” Their dual-phase nature allows them to not only exist in the gas phase, but also stick onto various particles and surfaces, permitting their persistence in the environment. SVOCs also are chemically stable, another reason why PFAS have such long lifespans in the environment.


PFAS are also distinguished by their functional group2 and carbon chain where carbon-hydrogen bonds are replaced by carbon-fluorine bonds.


Examples of different PFAS structures, white = functional groups, black = carbon atoms, and blue = fluorine atoms



  • Anionic PFAS (negatively charged)


  • Cationic PFAS (positively charged)


  • Zwitterionic PFAS (both negative and positive charges)


  • Nonionic PFAS (no charge)


Anionic PFAS don't stick well to soil surfaces, as they are usually negatively charged. Cationic PFAS, as a result, stick strongly to soil, while Zwitterionic PFAS are somewhere in the middle of the two.


Furthermore, the carbon-fluorine bond is the strongest chemical bond in organic chemistry, contributing to the molecule’s exceptional resistance to degradation. This bonding structure provides PFAS with unique properties that C-H bonds lack, outlined in this table from the Interstate Technology Regulatory Council:


Thermal stability - resistance to high temperatures; Chemical stability - maintains structure regardless of chemical exposure; Strong acidity - increased proton release causing greater solubility; Hydrophobic - repels water; Lipophilic - repels fat, oil, and grease


PFAS carbon chains vary in length, creating distinct environmental behavior. Long-chain PFAS bind strongly to soil particles and accumulate in tissues, whereas short-chain PFAS bind weakly to soil, making them highly mobile in groundwater. Over time, industries replaced long-chain PFAS with short-chain alternatives to reduce bioaccumulation in humans. However, this substitution introduced new problems, as short-chain PFAS spread faster and wider through the environment, are harder to remove from waterways, and are taken up more readily by plants.


Where Do PFAs Go?


As described above, PFAS have a variety of pathways they can take due to their chemical nature. Generally, PFAS are present in water (including drinking water, groundwater, surface water), soil (around waste sites), and the atmosphere.


The introduction of PFAS to marine environments and waterways is largely through leachate runoff and river discharge. PFAS has a tendency to migrate in water, meaning that they can be transported over long distances, even to the most remote areas of the world, such as the Arctic.


In its lifetime in the environment, PFAS may stick onto other pollutants, which can cause great concern for marine life. For example, research has shown that PFAS can attach to microplastics. By attaching onto MPs, PFAS can be easily ingested by marine organisms, creating a more direct pathway for PFAS to bioaccumulate in the food web. This same research has found that MPs can have a higher concentration of PFAS than naturally occurring sediments. This phenomenon causes potential for contamination hotspots, as well as increased risk for aquatic life. In addition, because MPs travel through water systems differently, PFAS are able to reach areas they couldn’t before.


These forever chemicals can contaminate soil through sludge or sludge-based compost/fertilizer, contaminated irrigation water, and landfill leachate. When plants are grown in this contaminated soil, PFAS can concentrate in plants and travel up the food chain, with top predators, such as whales and humans having the highest concentration levels.


Lastly, more volatile PFAS structures may enter the atmosphere via industrial emissions. These structures are very mobile in the atmosphere, acting similarly to PFAS in waterways.


All these environmental pathways are interconnected. PFAS released into the atmosphere may cycle into waterways or the soil, spreading contamination across environmental compartments.


Despite these environmental repercussions, the unbeatable capabilities of PFAS explain why thousands of companies continue producing PFAS, embedding them into products we use everyday.


Who Produces PFAS (and Why)?


The majority of global PFAS production comes from the following 12 producers:


  1. AGC Inc.

  2. 3M

  3. Archroma

  4. Arkema

  5. BASF

  6. Bayer

  7. Chemours

  8. Daikin

  9. Dongyue

  10. Honeywell

  11. Merck

  12. Solvay


PFAS is primarily used in making products resistant to water, grease, stain, and heat. They can be found in a wide variety of products, including:


  • Paper and cardboard food packaging (take-out containers, popcorn bags, pizza boxes)


  • Non-stick cookware (Teflon)


  • Textiles (waterproof clothing, carpets, mattresses)


  • Cosmetics (hair conditioner, sunscreen)


  • Electronics (mobile phones)


  • Fire-fighting foams (special foam used to extinguish liquid fire)


Implications for Humans


Unlike many other environmental pollutants, PFAS chemicals are not metabolized by the body. As a result, they accumulate in human tissue, specifically the blood, liver and kidneys, leading to a multitude of toxic effects. 


Exposure to PFAS increases the risk of kidney and testicular cancer, thyroid hormone disruption, and developmental issues in infants. It can impair the immune system, reduce vaccine effectiveness, and increase susceptibility to infections.


Industrial workers who are involved in making or processing PFAS, or people who live near PFAS facilities, have a greater exposure to PFAS. Pregnant and lactating women also have a higher risk because they drink more water per pound of body weight compared to the average person. If their waterways are polluted with PFAS, it can enter their bloodstream at higher concentrations and migrate into their breastmilk. Breast-fed infants, thus, can be exposed to PFAS as well. However, the EPA suggests that the benefits of breastfeeding outweigh the risks of exposure. If there is any concern of exposure, mothers should contact their individual doctors for further assessment.


Mitigation


Advanced technology, like activated carbon and reverse osmosis, are used to remove PFAS from the environment. Currently, Yale engineers are working on using membranes to break down PFAS chemicals.


While the average person cannot invest into these technologies, there are practical strategies to reduce PFAS exposure:


  • Avoid getting fast food as much as possible, specifically food that comes out with grease-resistant wrappers.


  • Skip microwavable popcorn, and other grease-resistant packaging. 

    • Avoid non-stick cookware, water resistant, and stain resistant products.

      Switch to stainless steel, cast iron, glass cookware – in general, be careful about your cookware


  • Limit consumption of freshwater locally caught fish.


  • Vacuum frequently with a HEPA filter to rid of any household dust that may have PFAS stuck on it.


  • Shop carefully from clothing and textile brands. Make sure they are free from any harmful chemicals. 


It may be difficult to completely avoid PFAS given how common they are in modern products. However, reducing exposure where possible can help protect personal health.


Conclusion


PFAS, designed for their great resistance to extreme conditions, resist our attempts to remove them from the environment and our bodies. Progress, regardless, is emerging through advanced treatment technologies and growing public awareness. It is important to address PFAS contamination at every level, from research and policy to corporate accountability and individual choice. 


We must evaluate new chemicals not just for their performance, but for their entire lifecycle. The next generation of materials should be designed not to last forever, but to disappear when their purpose is served.

1 a measure for a molecule’s ability to readily evaporate

2 an atom or group of atoms within a molecule that has similar chemical properties whenever it appears in various compounds

Citations

CHEM Trust. (2019, December 11). PFAS – the “Forever Chemicals.” CHEM Trust. https://chemtrust.org/pfas/

“Forever chemicals”: Top 3 ways to lower your exposure | Environmental Working Group. (2024, February 14). Www.ewg.org. https://www.ewg.org/news-insights/news/2024/02/forever-chemicals-top-3-ways-lower-your-exposure

GRPS. (2025, June 23). Semi-Volatile Organic Compounds (SVOCs) Explained. Gp-Radar.com; GRPS. https://www.gp-radar.com/article/semi-volatile-organic-compounds-svocs-explained

ITRC. (2023, September). 4 Physical and Chemical Properties – PFAS — Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances. Pfas-1.Itrcweb.org. https://pfas-1.itrcweb.org/4-physical-and-chemical-properties/

Lada Lukić-Bilela, Matijošytė, I., Jokūbas Krutkevičius, Diogo A.M. Alexandrino, Safarik, I., Juris Burlakovs, Gaudêncio, S. P., & Maria. (2023). Impact of per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances (PFAS) on the marine environment: Raising awareness, challenges, legislation, and mitigation approaches under the One Health concept. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 194, 115309–115309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2023.115309

Nayak, S., Sahoo, G., Ipsita Iswari Das, Aman Kumar Mohanty, Kumar, R., Sahoo, L., & Jitendra Kumar Sundaray. (2023). Poly- and Perfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS): Do They Matter to Aquatic Ecosystems? Toxics, 11(6), 543–543. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11060543

United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2024, November 26). Our Current Understanding of the Human Health and Environmental Risks of PFAS. Www.epa.gov; EPA. https://www.epa.gov/pfas/our-current-understanding-human-health-and-environmental-risks-pfas

US EPA. (2021, October 15). Meaningful and Achievable Steps You Can Take to Reduce Your Risk. Www.epa.gov. https://www.epa.gov/pfas/meaningful-and-achievable-steps-you-can-take-reduce-your-risk

Yale Experts Explain PFAS “Forever Chemicals” | Yale Sustainability. (2025). Yale.edu. https://sustainability.yale.edu/explainers/yale-experts-explain-pfas-forever-chemicals


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